SALT LAKE CITY — Graphene was a sleeper supermaterial when it was discovered in 2004. Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov had no idea what wonders awaited them when they discovered graphene. They only knew that it was a very important discovery in the realm of materials science and nanotechnology. For their discovery, they received a Nobel prize.

What is graphene? Graphene is a monolayer sheet of pure carbon, with each carbon atom linked together like chicken wire. The first graphene flakes were discovered by using scotch tape to pull apart graphite one sheet at a time. Millions of graphene sheets make up a single centimeter of graphite, a substance more familiar to us as pencil lead. How it eluded discovery until almost ten years ago is a wonder itself since graphite has been used by humans for about 6,000 years.

The properties of graphene are still being characterized, but the short list is enumerated here:

• Graphene has a tensile strength 200 times that of steel. This means graphene will withstand 200 times more stress than steel before tearing. It is also 300 times harder than steel.

• Graphene is an excellent conductor and exhibits less resistance to a passing current than copper. Electrons seem to lose their mass as they pass through the sheet.

• Graphene is a perfect thermal conductor.

• It is extremely transparent, absorbing only 2.3 percent of the light that strikes it.

• It is extremely impermeable. Only the smallest of molecules can get through a sheet of graphene.

While graphene has many great characteristics, it will take time for scientists and industry to determine how to apply them. Here are five of the top breakthroughs so far using graphene in basic and applied research:

1 — The single-electron pump. The ampere is one of the seven international units which also includes the metre, kilogram, second, Kelvin, mole and candela. Scientists have attempted to measure the ampere with greater and greater precision, but still find problems in the measurements at high precision. Current measurements of the ampere are subject to a certain amount of drift arising from the measurement tools available. Scientists now have a new tool for measuring the ampere: the graphene single-electron pump (GSEP).

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The GSEP can produce a stream of single electrons with greater precision than the metallic SEPs available today. The GSEP also produces electrons much faster than other single-electron pumps now in use. The GSEP heralds unprecedented precision in the measurement of the ampere, especially in the realm of micro and nano-electronics.

2 — Graphene optical modulator. Graphene is playing a part in the ever accelerating race for faster data transmission speeds in the lab. Graphene is very well suited for optical transmission and detection across a broad range of spectrum. Scientists have now found a way to combine graphene with silicon to produce the fastest optical modulators in the world.

Scientists have demonstrated optical data transmission in the terahertz frequencies, enabling terabit transmission speeds. At these speeds, graphene will enable transmission of hundreds of high definition movies per second across optical fiber. Graphene can also revolutionize the component interfaces of computers. Even the fastest CPU and memory available today will not be able to saturate a connection mediated by a graphene optical modulator. The graphene optical modulator can provide superfast communication speeds at very short and very long distances.

3 — Atomic collapse state observed in graphene. For decades, quantum mechanics theory has predicted that an atomic collapse state will be observed. Recent experiments with graphene have observed artificial atoms in a collapse state. According to Leonid Levitov, a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and co-author of a paper referenced in the link above, this discovery is based on other work that shows why atoms are stable. The positive charge from the protons in the nucleus of an atom are cancelled out by the electrons orbiting the atom. This balance of charge prevents the atom from collapsing or flying apart.

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Later work shows that the balancing act of electrons and protons in an atom breaks down if the charge of the nucleus is 170 or more. Scientists have created atoms with a charge of 118 with atom smashers. Graphene provides the foundation for creating artificial atoms with a charge much greater than 170.

The advent of an artificial atom on graphene represents an important advance in atomic physics that will provide new ways to study graphene as well as the nature of the atom.

4 — Graphene in ultracapacitors. Cell phone users know the drill when using their phone. Charge the phone at every opportunity when the phone is not in use. Charge it all night. Whatever it takes, make sure the phone is charged. Power is used quickly in the cell phone, but restoring to full charge takes hours. Electric cars have the same problem. In fact, anything with a battery takes a long time to charge relative to the run time that the battery affords.

That is likely to change with graphene ultracapacitors. Imagine charging your phone in 30 seconds, or charging your car in 15 minutes.

What makes a graphene ultracapacitor superior to others? Surface area on the conductors is what determines the amount of charge that can be stored. Graphene has a very high surface area and is capable of storing a much greater charge than electrolyte capacitors. Graphene is less expensive than the materials currently used to construct supercapacitors. Graphene is also very light and easy to produce. We can expect advanced energy storage solutions based on graphene supercapacitors to become available within the next 5-10 years.

5 — Graphene solar panels. For decades, silicon was the material of choice for solar panels. It has served us well, even with relatively low efficiencies. Scientists around the world are now testing and refining a new type of solar cell containing graphene. Take note of the fact that graphene is pure carbon and of the position of carbon in the periodic table. Carbon has the same valence as silicon, but it has a different atomic weight.

While silicon solar cells are delicate and brittle, graphene solar cells offer several advantages not seen in silicon-based counterparts. Graphene will give rise to flexible, transparent and highly efficient solar cells. When a photon strikes silicon, the exchange of energy will excite one electron to move. In graphene, scientists have seen 3 electrons move in response to one photon. Scientists are already imagining applications for this new source of solar power.

The carbon age is dawning. The time between a new discovery and a commercial application of that discovery is usually about 30 years. Graphene appears to be moving much faster. With just nine years elapsed since its discovery, industrial graphene products are already available and the list is growing rapidly. Consumer products are likely not that far behind.

Who knows where graphene will turn up next?

Scott C. Dunn is a technology writer living and working in Salt Lake City, Utah.

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